At the outbreak of the First World War (1914-1918), opposing the conflict was a difficult and even dangerous choice. Around 27,000 local men living in east London’s Hackney, Shoreditch and Stoke Newington responded to the recruitment campaigns and enlisted to serve in the war. In the same area, there were at least 350 conscientious objectors. They came from many different backgrounds and had many different motivations. But they were all united by one thing – a moral, political or religious objection to killing in war. This blog post shares the stories of the conscientious objectors in the east London neighbourhoods that now make up the London Borough of Hackney.
Protest and Conscription
On the eve of the First World War, on 2 August 1914 thousands marched to Victoria Park to protest for peace. From radical political groups to Christian and Jewish congregations, people from different communities across the area were united in their opposition to a potential war. Two days later on 4 August Britain declared war on Germany and an enormous campaign started to persuade men to enlist as soldiers. Horatio Bottomley, the ex-MP for Hackney South helped to whip up a storm of patriotism and anti-German hysteria that encouraged many local men to sign up for the army.
In 1916, the Liberal government introduced conscription, which was a hugely unpopular and controversial move. For the first time men aged between 18 and 41 years would be forced into the armed forces. For those who objected to killing and war, it would test their commitment to the anti-war message. The introduction of conscription divided the country. In Hackney, groups supporting it, such as the Anti-German League, clashed with the No Conscription Fellowship, who opposed it. In Parliament, the borough’s MPs took up opposing positions.
“If we adopt Conscription we will strengthen the old bad principles which have been the occasion of all the evils which have fallen upon Europe in connection with this war.”
Henry Chancellor, Haggerston MP, January 1916
“For the purpose of bringing the war to a successful conclusion, the Government is absolutely justified in bringing in this Bill proposing Conscription.”
Albert Spicer, Hackney Central MP, January 1916
Matters of Conscience
Hackney with its history of radical politics and religion, was an active centre of anti-war politics and demonstrations. Left-wing and liberal groups had long been part of the political landscape in Hackney, and many men and women with these beliefs supported the anti-war movement. Political objectors refused to fight a war they saw as pointless and for the benefit of the rich – at the expense of working people’s lives.
At this time, a large Jewish community lived in the area. Many had fled anti-Semitic persecution in Russia before the First World War. With Russia now allied with Britain in the war, some objected on the basis that being in the British army would mean fighting alongside the nation that had driven them from their homes. Others were not willing to kill.
Some members of particular large and longstanding churches in Hackney were also conscientious objectors. Along with the Jewish community, they shared the same argument that they were not willing to kill. Objecting in this way was a difficult choice that saw men shunned by their own families and even attacked in public.
Applying for Exemption
Each of the three Municipal Boroughs at the time – Hackney, Shoreditch and Stoke Newington – had tribunals. Men with anti-war beliefs could apply to their local Tribunal and hope for a fair and balanced hearing. However often this was not the case. Tribunals were staffed by council representatives and army officers who saw it as their duty to force men into the army. They often treated conscientious objectors harshly, ridiculed their arguments and in some cases deliberately blocked Objectors from receiving their desired outcome.
Of the thousands of applications to Hackney, Shoreditch and Stoke Newington Tribunals to avoid conscription, around 350 were specifically for reasons of conscience. While many looked for Absolute Exemption, others wanted exemptions solely from the armed forces and were prepared to do alternative, non-military work. The most common verdict was “Exception from Combatant Service Only”, sending an Objector to the military for duties not directly engaged with fighting. Many refused this verdict as they not only refused to fight, but believed that the whole system of forcing men to kill each other in war was wrong. Men who believed this were called ‘Absolutists’ and usually faced harsh prison sentences for their refusal. Of the 350 applications, none were granted absolute exemption so very few conscientious objectors considered this a successful outcome.
Local Anti-Conscription Movements
In 1914 the No-Conscription Fellowship (NCF) was set-up to oppose the introduction of conscription and a Hackney branch began in the Old Gravel Pit Hall, Mare Street. Its first meeting was on 3 December 1915. The branch was formed of a diverse range of local men. Some, such as socialists and trade unionists, were politically motivated. People from religious groups of Quakers, Jews and Congregationalists also joined. The branch focused on supporting Objectors and campaigning for their rights. As no Objectors gained exemption from the local Hackney Tribunal, the NCF branch worked to support 94 members who were arrested, helping them and their families while they were in prison.
The Brotherhood Church in Dalston was a meeting point for conscientious objectors and anti-war groups to come together to discuss their ideas and hold public meetings. Before the war, it was already well known for holding left-wing gatherings. Clifford Allen, Chair of the national NCF held several meetings at the Church which were attended by Objectors from Hackney and Islington.
Meetings often came under attack, and in 1917 as the philosopher Bertrand Russell addressed a crowd on conscription, a mob of soldiers and rioters broke in. A heavy police presence stood aside as they set fire to the Church.
Political and Conscientious Objectors in Hackney, Shoreditch and Stoke Newington
Conscientious objectors came from many different communities and had diverse experiences. Records are incomplete and many of their stories have been lost. Some which survive are shared below.
Rosa and Stephen Hobhouse
Tribunal: Shoreditch
Rosa and Stephen Hobhouse were passionate and active opponents of the First World War. While living in Hoxton in 1915 Rosa spent three months in jail for distributing pamphlets calling for peace and was a supporter of the conscientious objectors’ cause. Rosa was a key part of her husband’s pacifist and social work as well as being an author and activist herself. Stephen Hobhouse was arrested as a conscientious objector and sent to prison in 1916 after the Shoreditch Tribunal rejected his application for exemption.
By 1917 Stephen was very ill, suffering from the poor conditions in Exeter Prison. While Stephen was in prison, Rosa worked with the No Conscription Fellowship and helped to co-author, with her mother-in-law Margaret Hobhouse and philosopher Bertrand Russell, a booklet called I appeal Unto Caesar arguing for the release of jailed Objectors. It was widely distributed and resulted in the release of many men who were ill in prison in December 1917, including Stephen.
Herbert Morrison
Tribunal: Bermondsey
In 1916 Herbert Morrison’s local Tribunal in Bermondsey granted him an exemption from military service provided he took on Work of National Importance. He worked on farms near Letchworth from June 1916 onwards. He could have been exempted on medical grounds but instead he decided to make his stand as a conscientious objector.
Morrison was one of many conscientious objectors who went on to have a career in politics after the war. Immediately after the war he was elected Mayor of Hackney and then MP for Hackney South in 1923, 1929-31 and 1935-45. Labour and socialist Objectors like Herbert were common figures in politics after the war and many became MPs. Herbert was of the most famous and was Deputy Prime Minister from 1945-51.
“I belong to the Independent Labour Party and Socialism is my religion.”
Herbert Morrison, 1916, in response to the Tribunal when asked if he belonged to any religious group
Morris Beck
Tribunal: Hackney
Morris Beck was one of a group of Jewish conscientious objectors who protested against the harsh treatment received by inmates in work camps. These were places where conscientious objectors were sent and tasked with carrying out work of ‘national importance’ instead of fighting.
Living and working in Hackney in 1916, Beck was one of the thousands of conscientious objectors who joined the Home Office Scheme. The scheme was supposed to move objectors from prisons to work camps under government control and put them to useful work. Beck was placed in Dartmoor Work Camp where conditions were harsh and punishing. Objectors performed backbreaking labour with poor clothing and rations. While the scheme was very unpopular, some conscientious objectors believed it was an acceptable compromise rather than join the military. Others refused and chose to stay in prison.
In 1917 Beck and 17 other Jewish objectors wrote to the Chief Rabbi, asking him to intervene to allow Jewish objectors to practice their religion. The Rabbi’s repeated requests were denied as officials tried to make Dartmoor Work Camp as punishing as possible. From July 1917 until his release after the war ended in 1919, Beck worked on farms and quarries.
Wilfred Knott
Tribunal: Military
Though most conscientious objectors were conscripted under the Military Service Act 1916, there were exceptions. Some men were already serving in the army having volunteered for non-combatant sections. Wilfred Knott of Stamford Hill was one of these men. A member of the Salvation Army, he had always been a pacifist. In 1914 he volunteered for the Royal Army Medical Corps rather than fighting in a regiment. He served in England and France until 1917 when he was posted to Egypt.
In Egypt, Wilfred was threatened with transfer to a combat unit, where he would be forced to carry a weapon and have to follow orders to kill others. Wilfred refused, remaining dedicated to saving lives. He was imprisoned for months until he was acknowledged as a conscientious objector. He was allowed to stay in the Royal Army Medical Corps and carried on his work saving lives.
Emma Boyce
Tribunal: None
Emma Boyce was a Hackney suffragette and anti-war activist. She campaigned on behalf of the Workers’ Socialist Federation, led by leading suffragette Sylvia Pankhurst, which took an anti-war stance. Boyce travelled the country attending conferences, organising protests and speaking at events, sometimes as often as five times a week. She saw conscription as an infringement of personal liberties and thought it the first step towards further losses of freedom, especially for the working classes. Emma was elected as a Labour councillor for South Hackney from 1919 to 1922 and she was a Governor at the London Maternity Hospital in Finsbury Park until her death in 1929.
End of the War
After the fighting ended on 11 November 1918, conscientious objectors were eventually released from prison and their roles undertaking work elsewhere. Some did not return home until 1920. Many faced hostility and found it difficult to get work. Employers often refused to hire men who had not fought in the war. Local politics in Hackney slowly changed as it became dominated by men and women who had a strong desire for peace. Some of them had opposed the war and others had socialist beliefs, and this influenced their decision making. Shoreditch and Stoke Newington also experienced some changes.
Content for this blog featured in the exhibition ‘Not in My Name: Hackney’s First World War Conscientious Objectors’ at Hackney Archives 1 March – 1 October 2016. The exhibition was researched and curated by Hackney Museum and the Peace Pledge Union.